al Institute_, xxv, 295
(South Australia); Howitt, _Native Tribes of South-East
Australia_, p. 531 f.

[326] _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xiii, 296
(Queensland); Howitt, loc. cit.; Spencer and Gillen, _Native
Tribes of Central Australia_, pp. 221, 223, and _Native
Tribes of Northern Australia_, p. 361.

[327] H. Webster, _Primitive Secret Societies_, chap. ii ff.

[328] The office of sponsor exists in embryonic form in many
savage communities; for boys the sponsor is the father or
other near relation, for girls an old woman. The duties of
savage sponsors usually continue only during the period of
initiation.

[329] Westermarck, _Human Marriage_; H. N. Hutchinson,
_Marriage Customs in Many Lands_; Ch. Letourneau, _The
Evolution of Marriage and of the Family_; Crawley, _The
Mystic Rose_; and the references in G. E. Howard's _History
of Matrimonial Institutions_, i, chaps. i-iv; cf. Hartland,
_Primitive Paternity_.

[330] See below, Sec. 429 ff.

[331] Similar restrictions existed in Greece and Rome. An
Athenian citizen was not allowed to marry a foreign woman.
In Rome connubium held in the first instance between men and
women who were citizens, though it might be extended to
include Latins and foreigners. In India marriage came to be
controlled by caste. These local and national rules
gradually yielded to rules based on degrees of
consanguinity. Marriage between near relations was looked on
with disfavor in Greece and Rome and by the Hebrews, and the
Old Testament law on this point has been adopted (with some
variations) by Christian nations. For the Arab customs see
W. R. Smith, _Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia_, chap.
iii.

[332] Cf. Crawley, _The Mystic Rose_, p. 462 ff.; W. R.
Smith, _Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia_, 1st ed., p.
62 ff.; Hartland, _Primitive Paternity_, chaps. v, vi.

[333] In some cases, among the Todas of South India for
example, the defloration takes place shortly before the girl
reaches the age of puberty (Rivers, _The Todas_, p. 703);
more generally it is performed when she reaches this age.
This difference of time is not essential as regards the
significance of the ceremony.

[334] Cf. Frazer, _Golden Bough_, 2d ed., i, 224. For the
Old Testament Song of Songs see Budde's commentary on that
book.

[335] Sacrifices to local or other deities formed a part of
marri