few commentaries on his Ethics and
Politics composed the whole philosophical literature of Poland. In the
first years of our own century, Jaronski and Szianiawski made an
attempt to introduce the philosophy of Kant; but although the cause
appeared to be in the best hands, they met with little success.
Galuchowski, a German philosophical writer of merit, is a Pole by
birth;[60] as also Trentovski and Cieszkowski, followers of Hegel, who
prefer the German for their organ.[61]

For the study of polite literature and the Slavic languages during
this period, Warsaw was the principal seat; for philology and the
exact sciences, the university of Wilna. This learned institution had
taken special pains in respect to the necessary elementary books for
the study of the classical languages; and was distinguished by its
able professors Groddek, Bobrowski, and Zukowski. The former, a
scholar of high reputation, in addition to several philological works,
translated Buttman's Greek Grammar into Polish; the latter published
also a Greek and a Hebrew Grammar. In the oriental languages Senkowski
at St. Petersburgh is distinguished; and count Rzewuski at Vienna had
great desert in connection with the periodical work, _Fundgruben des
Orients_.

In consequence of the grand-duke Constantine's predilection for
mathematics, an undue share of attention, after the erection of a
kingdom of Poland under his administration, was paid in schools to the
exact or empirical sciences; _undue_ we call it, because on account of
its excess, the moral and literary pursuits of the pupils were
necessarily neglected. Mathematics, during this whole period, were
taught by several eminent men; by John Sniadecki, who is at the same
time considered as a model in respect to style and language; by
Poezobut, Zaborowski, Czech, Rogalinski, and others. In the same
departments the names of Twardowski, Polinski, and Konkowski, must be
honourably mentioned. Count Sierakowski wrote a classical work on
architecture; and the learned Polish Jew Stern is celebrated over all
Europe as the inventor of arithmetical and agricultural machines.
Count Chodkiewicz and Andrew Sniadecki are distinguished chemists.
Natural philosophy, although less studied, had able professors in H.
Osinski and Bystrzycki; natural history, more particularly botany and
zoology, in Kluk and Jundzill. Medicine, until the middle of the last
century, was in Poland exclusively in the hands of foreigners,
espec