on the field and exposed to the
action of the weather for several weeks without any previous steeping.
This method of retting is practiced in Germany and Russia. Warm water
retting and chemical retting have met with limited success.

When the retting is complete, the flax is set up in sheaves to dry. The
next operations consist of "breaking," "scutching," and "hackling" and
are now done by machinery.

[Illustration: FIBERS OF FLAX]

Breaking removes the woody center from the retted and dried flax by
being passed through a series of fluted rollers. The particles of woody
matter adhering to the fibers are detached by scutching.

[Sidenote: Hackling]

Hackling or combing still further separates the fibers into their finest
filaments--"line" and "tow." The "flax line" is the long and valuable
fiber; the tow, the short coarse tangled fiber which is spun and used
for weaving coarse linen.

[Illustration: FLAX

A, Unthrashed Straw; B, Retted; C, Cleaned or Scutched; D, Hackled or
Dressed.

(Photograph of C. R. Dodge).]

[Illustration: HACKLING FLAX BY HAND

The "Tow" Is Seen at the Left and a Bunch of "Flax line" on the Bench.

(Photograph of C. R. Dodge, Special Agent U. S. Department of
Agriculture.)]

[Sidenote: Characteristics of Linen]

When freed from all impurities the chief physical characteristics of
flax are its snowy whiteness, silky luster and great tenacity. The
individual fibers may be from ten to twelve inches in length; they
are much greater in diameter than cotton. It is less pliant and elastic
than cotton and bleaches and dyes less readily. Linen cloth is a better
conductor of heat than cotton and clothing made from it is cooler. When
pure, it is, like cotton, nearly pure cellulose.

[Sidenote: Ramie]

Besides the linen, there is a great number of bast fibers fit for
textile purposes, some superior, some inferior. India alone has over
three hundred plants that are fiber yielding. One-third of these furnish
useful fibers for cordage and fabrics. The next in importance to linen
is ramie or rhea, and China grass. China grass comes from a different
plant but is about the same as ramie. The staple is longer and finer
than linen. The great strength of yarn made from it is due to length of
the staple.

The variety and great value of the ramie fibers has long been
recognized, but difficulties attending the separation and degumming of
the fibers have prevented its employment in the manufact