said that if the present time
did not exist, then no perception of it would have been possible.
The past and future also exist, for otherwise we should not have
perceived things as being done in the past or as going to be
done in the future. The validity of analogy (upamana) as a
means of knowledge and the validity of the Vedas is then proved.
The four prama@nas of perception, inference, analogy, and scripture

_________________________________________________________________

[Footnote 1: Here the sutras, II. i. 20-28, are probably later
interpolations to answer criticisms, not against the Nyaya doctrine
of perception, but against the wording of the definition
of perception as given in the,_Nyaya sutra_, II. i. 4.]

[Footnote 2: This is a refutation of the doctrines of the Buddhists, who
rejected the existence of wholes (avayavi). On this subject a later
Buddhist monograph by Pandita As'oka (9th century A.D.),
_Avayavinirakara@na_ in _Six Buddhist Nyaya Tracts_, may be referred
to.]

[Footnote 3: _Purvodakavis'i@s@tam khalu var@sodakan s'ighrataram srotasa
bahutaraphenaphalapar@nakas@thadivahanancopalabhamana@h pur@natvena,
nadya upari v@r@sto deva ityanuminoti nodakab@rddhimatre@na. V@atsyayana
bha@sya_, II. i. 38. The inference that there has been rain up the river
is not made merely from seeing the rise of water, but from the rainwater
augmenting the previous water of the river and carrying with its current
large quantities of foam, fruits, leaves, wood, etc. These characteristics,
associated with the rise of water, mark it as a special kind of rise of
water, which can only be due to the happening of rain up the river].

298

are quite sufficient and it is needless to accept arthapatti (implication),
aitihya (tradition), sambhava (when a thing is understood
in terms of higher measure the lower measure contained in it is
also understood--if we know that there is a bushel of corn anywhere
we understand that the same contains eight gallons of
corn as well) and abhava (non-existence) as separate prama@nas
for the tradition is included in verbal testimony and arthapatti,
sambhava and abhava are included within inference.

The validity of these as prama@nas is recognized, but they are
said to be included in the four prama@nas mentioned before. The
theory of the eternity of sound is then refuted and the non-eternity
proved in great detail. The meaning of words is said to
refer to class-notions (_jati_), individua