___

[Footnote 1: This is a brief summary of the doctrines found in _Nyaya
sutras_, supplemented here and there with the views of Vatsyayana, the
commentator. This follows the order of the sutras, and tries to present
their ideas with as little additions from those of later day Nyaya as
possible. The general treatment of Nyaya-Vais'e@sika expounds the two
systems in the light of later writers and commentators.]

[Footnote 2: It is curious to notice that Vatsyayana says that an arya, a
@r@si or a mleccha (foreigner), may be an apta (reliable authority).]

295

Such a testimony may tell us about things which may be experienced
and which are beyond experience. Objects of knowledge
are said to be self (_atman_), body, senses, sense-objects,
understanding (_buddhi_), mind (_manas_}, endeavour (prav@rtti), rebirths,
enjoyment of pleasure and suffering of pain, sorrow and
salvation. Desire, antipathy, effort (_prayatna_), pleasure, pain, and
knowledge indicate the existence of the self. Body is that which
upholds movement, the senses and the rise of pleasure and pain
as arising out of the contact of sense with sense-objects [Footnote ref l];
the five senses are derived from the five elements, such as prthivi, ap,
tejas, vayu and akas'a; smell, taste, colour, touch, and sound are
the qualities of the above five elements, and these are also the
objects of the senses. The fact that many cognitions cannot
occur at any one moment indicates the existence of mind (_manas_).
Endeavour means what is done by speech, understanding, and
body. Do@sas (attachment, antipathy, etc) are those which lead
men to virtue and vice. Pain is that which causes suffering [Footnote ref
2]. Ultimate cessation from pain is called _apavarga_ [Footnote ref 3].
Doubt arises when through confusion of similar qualities or conflicting
opinions etc., one wants to settle one of the two alternatives. That
for attaining which, or for giving up which one sets himself to work
is called _prayojana_.

Illustrative example (_d@r@s@tanta_) is that on which both the
common man and the expert (_parik@saka_) hold the same opinion.
Established texts or conclusions (_siddhanta_) are of four kinds,
viz (1) those which are accepted by all schools of thought called
the _sarvatantrasiddhanta_; (2) those which are held by one school
or similar schools but opposed by others called the _pratitantrasiddhanta_;
(3) those which being accepted other conclusions will also naturally