ermany, the
styles of Sallust and Livy were being happily imitated in the _Annals_
of Lambert of Hersfeld (d. 1077). In Italy, where the study of Latin
literature seems never to have entirely died out, young nobles and
students preparing for the priesthood were not infrequently learning
Latin together, in private grammar schools under liberal clerics, such
as Anselm of Bisate (fl. 1050), who describes himself as divided in his
allegiance between the saints and the muses. Learning flourished at
Monte Cassino under the rule of the Abbot Desiderius (afterwards Pope
Victor III.). In this century that famous monastery had its classical
chronicler in Leo Marsicanus, and its Latin poet in Alfanus, the future
archbishop of Salerno.

The Schoolmen devoted most of their attention to Aristotle, and we may
here briefly note the successive stages in their gradually increasing
knowledge of his works. Until 1128 only the first two of the five parts
of the _Organon_ were known, and those solely in Latin translations from
the original. After that date two more became known; the whole was
familiar to John of Salisbury in 1159; while the _Physics_ and
_Metaphysics_ came into notice about 1200. Plato was mainly represented
by the Latin translation of the _Timaeus_. Abelard (d. 1142) was
acquainted with no Greek works except in Latin translations, but he has
left his mark on the history of European education. The wide popularity
of his brilliant lectures in the "schools" of Paris made this city the
resort of the many students who were ultimately organized as a
"university" (c. 1170). John of Salisbury attended Abelard's lectures in
1136, and, after spending two years in the study of logic in Paris,
passed three more in the scholarly study of Latin literature at
Chartres, where a sound and healthy tradition, originally due to Bernard
of Chartres (fl. 1120), was still perpetuated by his pupils. In that
school the study of "figures of speech" was treated as merely
introductory to that of the classical texts. Stress was laid on the
sense as well as the style of the author studied. Discussions on set
subjects were held, select passages from the classics learned by heart,
while written exercises in prose and verse were founded on the best
ancient models. In the general scheme of education the authority
followed was Quintilian. John of Salisbury (d. 1180), the ripest product
of this school, is the most learned man of his time. His favourite
autho