Place and date.

Opinion at one time inclined to the view that the _True Word_ was
written in Rome, but the evidence (wholly internal) points much more
decisively to an Egyptian, and in particular an Alexandrian origin. Not
only do the many intimate references to Egyptian history and customs
support this position, but it is clear that the Jews of Celsus are not
Western or Roman Jews, but belong to the Orient, and especially to that
circle of Judaism which had received and assimilated the idea of the
Logos.

The date also is clearly defined. Besides the general indication that
the Empire was passing through a military crisis, which points to the
long struggle waged by Marcus Aurelius against the Marcomanni and other
Germanic tribes, there is a reference (_Contra Celsum_, viii. 69) to the
rescript of that emperor impressing on governors and magistrates the
duty of keeping a strict watch on extravagances in religion. This edict
dates from 176-177, and inaugurated the persecution which lasted from
that time till the death of Marcus Aurelius in 180. During these years
Commodus was associated with Marcus in the imperium, and Celsus has a
reference to this joint rule (viii. 71).

Value in the history of Christianity.

Celsus shows himself familiar with the story of Jewish origins. Any
pagan who wished to understand and criticize Christianity intimately had
to begin by learning from the Jews, and this accounts for the opening
chapters of his argument. He has a good knowledge of Genesis and Exodus,
refers to the stories of Jonah, Daniel (vii. 53) and Enoch (v. 52), but
does not make much use of the Prophets or the Psalter. As regards the
New Testament his position is closely in agreement with that reflected
in the contemporary _Acts of the Martyrs of Scili_. He speaks of a
Christian collection of writings, and knew and used the gospels, but was
influenced less by the fourth than by the Synoptics. There is more
evidence of Pauline ideas than of Pauline letters.

The gnostic sects and their writings were well known to him (viii. 15
and vi. 25), and so was the work of Marcion. There are indications, too,
of an acquaintance with Justin Martyr and the Sibylline literature (vii.
53, op. v. 61). "He is perfectly aware of the internal differences
between Christians, and he is familiar with the various stages of
development in the history of their religion. These are cleverly
employed in order to heighten the impression