the
advantages offered to young men for perfecting themselves in a trade or
calling, France surpasses all other countries.

Finally there are the State universities, fifteen in number, the
professors of which are appointed by the State. While the State pays all
salaries, the maintenance of the buildings depends upon fees,
endowments, and such local support as is obtainable. These institutions
are open to students from the higher primary schools, thus making a
complete system from the lowest school to the highest, and offering
remarkable advantages to all. All degrees are given by the State,
thereby securing perfect uniformity.

=Support of Schools.=--All of the schools above mentioned, from the
_mother_ school to the university, are free. The expenses are
distributed as follows: (1) The State pays the salaries of all teachers,
administrators, and inspectors, and all the expenses of the normal
schools. Thus it will be seen that the bulk of the expense of education
is borne by the State in general. (2) The _departements_ erect the
normal school and furnish the apparatus and supplies for the same. (3)
The _communes_ pay for the needed supplies, for the janitor, and for
other local necessities of the elementary schools. They may also tax
themselves to increase the salaries of teachers beyond the State
allowance. Each community thus has the power to decide whether it will
be content with an average school, merely fulfilling the State
requirements, or whether it will have a superior school taught by the
best teachers obtainable.

=The Teachers.=--There are two classes of normal schools in France, the
elementary, of which there are eighty-seven for men and eighty-five for
women,--practically one for each sex in each of the departments,--and
the higher, of which there is one for men, one for women, and one for
kindergartners. Nearly all teachers are graduates of normal schools, and
as no candidates for positions are considered unless they hold a normal
certificate, in the near future all the teachers of France will be
professionally trained.

Candidates for admission to the normal school must be at least sixteen
years of age, of good moral character, and of fair abilities. They must
pledge themselves to teach for not less than ten years.[177] The
elementary course covers three years. After graduation, the young
teacher is appointed provisionally until he has taken a final
examination, which must be within ten years. If he