of Germany or Austria. Germany's was by far the
best of the three. Many of the Russian roads had but one line of track,
their construction was inferior, stations were farther apart, and the
speed of trains was comparatively slow. They could not carry as much
traffic as those of either of her two adversaries. The gauge of the
Russian roads was 5 feet, so that the rolling stock could not be used on
German and Austrian roads, which had a uniform gauge of 4 feet 8-1/2
inches. The management of Russian railroads was too complicated for army
purposes. But Sukhomlinoff simplified it and instituted schools in which
army officers were instructed in putting soldiers on cars rapidly and
routing trains to the best possible advantage. This and other activities
of Sukhomlinoff, along the line of reform and improvement, were in no
small measure responsible for the rapidity with which Galicia was
invaded.

Austria's military problem was a difficult one from the start. Her ally,
Germany, could not extend much military assistance until a decisive blow
had been struck in the western theatre of war, but Austria, having a
million men in readiness and being strong in artillery, was expected to
assume the offensive from the start and attack the imperfectly mobilized
Russian forces in western Poland. An immediate offensive was required,
because she must hold Galicia at all cost.

There were three places where Russia might cross the frontier of
Galicia--west of the point where the waters of the San empty into the
Vistula, between the Upper Bug and the San, or along the line of the
River Sereth on the east. There was great danger in a combined movement
by Russia against the first and third sections of the frontier which
would cut off and surround the forces of Austria which were based on
Przemysl and Lemberg. In order to avoid this peril, apparently the
safest as well as boldest plan was to proceed northward against the
fortresses of Warsaw. Such an advance would in all probability prevent
the armies of Russia from crossing the Vistula and postpone any attack
against the Sereth from the east.

Austria was staking the success of such tactics on the incompleteness of
mobilization by the Russians, and therein she proved to be in error.
Indeed, the quickness of Russia's military movements amazed the entire
world, with the exception of her Generalissimo, Grand Duke Nicholas, and
his aides and advisors.

At the outbreak of the Great War, Nicholas