lar tactics in this respect, and the only advantage possessed by
Russia in their use was that both her infantry and artillery possessed a
much larger number of officers, who had been trained to understand how,
against a powerful opponent, to carry out efficiently in practice and in
times of great stress the theory which all nations held in common.

The observer of the battles in the Russo-Austrian campaigns will see
that the Russian cavalry was inadequate, because its horses were too
small, of inferior strain, and lacking the stamina needed in modern
warfare. They were valuable, however, because of their large numbers,
and the fact that during the winter months, being acclimated and to the
country born, they were able to pick up a living in the snow when other
horses would starve.

As regards field batteries, near the western Russian frontier and in
Asia, nearly all of them had, when war was declared, eight guns. In most
of the batteries in Asia the number of men maintained in peace was the
same as in war.

[Illustration: Russian Invasion of Galicia.]

The Russian army moved forward with adequate aerial corps. The keenest
interest in military aviation had been taken in Russia during two years
before the war. Grand Duke Alexander was one of the founders of the
aviation school at Sebastopol, where two-thirds of the Russian aviation
officers obtained their training. In the spring of 1914 the air fleet
consisted of 16 dirigibles and 360 aeroplanes, while orders for 1,000
aircraft of different descriptions had been placed with various firms in
Russia.

The army of Austria-Hungary which faced the Russians was composed of men
from a country where universal military service prevailed. In theory
only the physically unfit were exempt from service, and the liability
extended from the beginning of the nineteenth year to the close of the
forty-second. Actual service in the ranks and with the reserve was
twelve years. After the men had served ten years with the army and in
its reserve they were included in the Landwehr for another two years. It
is likely that Austria had at the outbreak of war from 1,200,000 to
1,300,000 men at her disposal. During the three years preceding she had
greatly strengthened her equipment.

The infantry of the joint Austrian army, which had to fight the
campaigns against the Russians on the east, and against the Serbians on
the south, comprised 102 regiments of infantry, 27 battalions of
Jaegers, 4