with itself, the knower and
the known, Kumarila however admitted a transcendent element
of movement as being the cause of our objective consciousness,
but regarded this as being separate from self. But the question
remained unsolved as to why, in spite of the unique character of
knowledge, knowledge could relate itself to the world of objects,
how far the world of external objects or of knowledge could be
regarded as absolutely true. Hitherto judgments were only relative,
either referring to one's being prompted to the objective
world, to the faithfulness of the representation of objects, the
suitability of fulfilling our requirements, or to verification by later

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[Footnote 1: See _Nyayaratnamala_, svata@h-prama@nya-nir@naya.]

[Footnote 2: See _Nyayamanjari_ on Prama@na, _S'lokavarttika_ on
Pratyak@sa, and Gaga Bha@t@ta's _Bha@t@tacintama@ni_ on Pratyak@sa.]

418

uncontradicted experience. But no enquiry was made whether
any absolute judgments about the ultimate truth of knowledge
and matter could be made at all. That which appeared was regarded
as the real. But the question was not asked, whether
there was anything which could be regarded as absolute truth,
the basis of all appearance, and the unchangeable, reality. This
philosophical enquiry had the most wonderful charm for the
Hindu mind.

Vedanta Literature.

It is difficult to ascertain the time when the _Brahma-sutras_
were written, but since they contain a refutation of almost all the
other Indian systems, even of the S'unyavada Buddhism (of course
according to S'a@nkara's interpretation), they cannot have been
written very early. I think it may not be far from the truth in
supposing that they were written some time in the second century
B.C. About the period 780 A.D. Gau@dapada revived the monistic
teaching of the Upani@sads by his commentary on the Ma@n@dukya
Upani@sad in verse called _Ma@n@dukyakarika_. His disciple Govinda
was the teacher of S'a@nkara (788--820 A.D.). S'a@nkara's commentary
on the _Brahma-sutras_ is the root from which sprang
forth a host of commentaries and studies on Vedantism of great
originality, vigour, and philosophic insight. Thus Anandagiri, a
disciple of S'a@nkara, wrote a commentary called _Nyayanir@naya_,
and Govindananda wrote another commentary named _Ratna-prabha_.
Vacaspati Mis'ra, who flourished about 841 A.D., wrote
another commentary on it