centuries, to sum up the
account of ignorance in a word, it was rare for a layman, of whatever
rank, to know how to sign his name.[504] Their charters, till the use of
seals became general, were subscribed with the mark of the cross. Still
more extraordinary it was to find one who had any tincture of learning.
Even admitting every indistinct commendation of a monkish biographer
(with whom a knowledge of church-music would pass for literature[505]),
we could make out a very short list of scholars. None certainly were
more distinguished as such than Charlemagne and Alfred. But the former,
unless we reject a very plain testimony, was incapable of writing;[506]
and Alfred found difficulty in making a translation from the pastoral
instruction of St. Gregory, on account of his imperfect knowledge of
Latin.[507]

Whatever mention, therefore, we find of learning and the learned during
these dark ages, must be understood to relate only to such as were
within the pale of clergy, which indeed was pretty extensive, and
comprehended many who did not exercise the offices of religious
ministry. But even the clergy were, for a long period, not very
materially superior, as a body, to the uninstructed laity. A cloud of
ignorance overspread the whole face of the church, hardly broken by a
few glimmering lights, who owe much of their distinction to the
surrounding darkness. In the sixth century the best writers in Latin
were scarcely read;[508] and perhaps from the middle of this age to the
eleventh there was, in a general view of literature, little difference
to be discerned. If we look more accurately, there will appear certain
gradual shades of twilight on each side of the greatest obscurity.
France reached her lowest point about the beginning of the eighth
century; but England was at that time more respectable, and did not fall
into complete degradation till the middle of the ninth. There could be
nothing more deplorable than the state of letters in Italy and in
England during the succeeding century; but France cannot be denied to
have been uniformly, though very slowly, progressive from the time of
Charlemagne.[509]

Of this prevailing ignorance it is easy to produce abundant testimony.
Contracts were made verbally, for want of notaries capable of drawing up
charters; and these, when written, were frequently barbarous and
ungrammatical to an incredible degree. For some considerable intervals
scarcely any monument of literature has