on even the Church's criminal jurisdiction became more and
more concentrated in the hands of the pope (see INQUISITION).

The rule of the Church by the Roman bishop had thus become a reality;
but the papal claim to supreme temporal authority proved impossible to
maintain, although Innocent III. had apparently enforced it. The long
struggle against Frederick II., carried on by Gregory IX. (1227-1241)
and Innocent IV. (1243-1254), did not result in victory; no papal
sentence, but only death itself, deprived the emperor of his dominions;
and when Boniface VIII. (1294-1303), who in the bull _Unam Sanctam_
(1302) gave the papal claims to universal dominion their classical form,
quarrelled with Philip IV. of France about the extension of the royal
power, he could not but perceive that the national monarchy had become a
force which it was impossible for the papacy to overcome.

(c) _Close of the Middle Ages. Disintegration._--While the Church was
yet at the height of her power the great revolution began, which was to
end in the disruption of that union between the Temporal and the
Spiritual which, under her dominion, had characterized the life of the
West. The Temporal now claimed its proper rights. The political power of
the Empire, indeed, had been shattered; but this left all the more room
for the vigorous development of national states, notably of France and
England. At the same time intellectual life was enriched by a wealth of
fresh views and new ideas, partly the result of the busy intercourse
with the East to which the Crusades had given the first impetus, and
which had been strengthened and extended by lively trade relations,
partly of the revived study, eagerly pursued, of ancient philosophy and
literature (see RENAISSANCE). Old forms became too narrow, and
vigorously growing national literatures appeared side by side with the
universal Latin literature. The life of the Church, moreover, was
affected by the economic changes due to the rise of the power of money
as opposed to the old economic system based upon land.

The effects of these changes made themselves felt on all sides, in no
case more strongly than in that of the papal claims to the supreme
government of the world. Theoretically they were still unwaveringly
asserted; indeed it was not till this time that they received their most
uncompromising expression (Augustinus Triumphus, d. 1328; Alvarus
Pelagius, d. 1352). After Boniface VIII., however, no pope ser