are governed by a law. In every
_clausula_ there is a basis followed by a cadence. The basis consists
of a cretic or its metrical equivalent.[10] This is followed by a
cadence trochaic in character, but varying in length. The three
favourite forms are (i.) [-u--[=u]], (ii.) [-u--u[=u]], (iii.)
[-u--u-[=u]]. These he styles _verae (V)_. Other frequent _clausulae_,
which he terms _licitae (L)_, are those in which a long syllable is
resolved, as in verse, into two shorts, e.g. _[=e]ss[)e]
v[)i]d[)e][=a]t[)u]r_. These two classes, _V_ and _L_, include 86% of
the _clausulae_ in the orations. Some rarer _clausulae_ which he terms
_M (= malae)_ introduce no new principle. There remain two interesting
forms, viz. _S (= selectae)_, in which a spondee is substituted for a
trochee in the cadence, e.g. [-u----], this being done for special
emphasis, and _P (= pessimae)_, where a dactyl is so used, e.g.
[-u--uu-[=u]], this being the _heroica clausula_ condemned by
Quintilian. Similar rules apply to the _membra_ of the sentence,
though in these the _S_ and _P_ forms are more frequent, harmony being
restored in the _clausula_.

These results apply not only to the speeches but also to the
philosophical writings and the more elaborate letters, and with
modifications to other rhythmical prose, e.g. that of Pliny and
Seneca. Rhythm was avoided by Caesar who was an Atticist, and by
Sallust who was an archaist. Livy's practice is exactly opposite to
that of Cicero, since he has a marked preference for the _S_ forms,
thereby exemplifying Cicero's saying that long syllables are more
appropriate to history than to oratory.[11]

(ii.) _Speeches_.--These were generally delivered before the senate or
people, if political in character, and before jurors sitting in a
_quaestio_, if judicial. The speech against Vatinius was an attack upon
a witness under examination; that _de Domo_ was made before the
Pontifices; that _pro C. Rabirio perduellionis reo_ in the course of a
_provocatio_ to the people; and those _pro Ligario_ and _pro rege
Deiotaro_ before Caesar. The five orations composing the _Actio Secunda
in Verrem_ were never spoken, but written after Verres had gone into
exile. The Second _Philippic_ also was not delivered but issued as a
pamphlet. Cicero's speech for Milo at his trial was not a success,
though, as Quintilian (ix. 2. 54) quotes from it, as taken down by
shorthand reporters, an