the supreme head of the Western Church,
should remain unaffected by it. Two of the most powerful of the German
emperors, Frederick I. and his son Henry VI., struggled to renew and to
maintain the imperial supremacy over the papacy. The close relations
between northern Italy and the Empire, and the union of the sovereignty
of southern Italy with the German crown, seemed to afford the means for
keeping Rome in subjection. But Frederick I. fought a losing battle, and
when at the peace of Venice (1177) he recognized Alexander III. as pope,
he relinquished the hope of carrying out his Italian policy; while Henry
VI. died at the early age of thirty-two (1197), before his far-reaching
schemes had been realized.

The field was thus cleared for the full development of papal power. This
had greatly increased since the Concordat of Worms, and reached its
height under Innocent III. (1198-1216). Innocent believed himself to be
the representative of God, and as such the supreme possessor of both
spiritual and temporal power. He therefore claimed in both spheres the
supreme administrative, legislative and judicial authority. Just as he
considered himself entitled to appoint to all ecclesiastical offices, so
also he invested the emperor with his empire and kings with their
kingdoms. Not only did he despatch his decretals to the universities to
form the basis of the teaching of the canon law and of the decisions
founded upon it, but he considered himself empowered to annul civil
laws. Thus he annulled the Great Charter in 1215. Just as the Curia was
the supreme court of appeal in ecclesiastical causes, so also the pope
threatened disobedient princes with deposition, e.g. the emperor Otto
IV. in 1210, and John of England in 1212.

The old institutions of the Catholic Church were transformed to suit the
new position of the pope. From 1123 onward there had again been talk of
general councils; but, unlike those of earlier times, these were
assemblies summoned by the pope, who confirmed their resolutions. The
canonical election of bishops also continued to be discussed; but the
old electors, i.e. the clergy and laity of the dioceses, were deprived
of the right of election, this being now transferred exclusively to the
cathedral chapters. The bishops kept their old title, but they described
themselves accurately as "bishops by grace of the apostolic see," for
they administered their dioceses as plenipotentiaries of the pope; and
as time went