541). The invasion of Provence in
1536 was headed by the emperor. In person he crushed the rebellion of
Ghent (1540). In his last war with Francis (1542-44) he journeyed from
Spain to the Netherlands, brought the rebellious duke of Cleves to his
knees, and was within easy reach of Paris when he made the peace of
Crepy (1544). In Germany, meanwhile, from the diet of Augsburg (1530)
onwards, he had presided at the diets or conferences, which, as he
hoped, would effect the reunion of the church.

Peace with France and the Turk and a short spell of friendliness with
Pope Paul III. enabled Charles at last to devote his whole energies to
the healing of religious schism. Conciliation proving impossible, he led
the army which received the submission of the Lutheran states, and then
captured the elector of Saxony at Muhlberg, after which the other
leader, Philip of Hesse, capitulated. The Armed Diet of 1548 was the
high-water mark of Charles's power. Here, in defiance of the pope, he
published the Interim which was meant to reconcile the Lutherans with
the church, and the so-called Reform which was to amend its abuses.
During the next four years, owing to ill-health and loss of insight, his
power was ebbing. In 1552 he was flying over the Brenner from Maurice of
Saxony, a princeling whose fortunes he had made. Once again the old
complications had arisen. His old enemy's son, Henry II., had attacked
him indirectly in Piedmont and Parma, and then directly in Germany in
alliance with Maurice. Once more the Turk was moving in the Danube and
in the western Mediterranean. The humiliation of his flight gave Charles
new spirit, and he once more led an army through Germany against the
French, only to be checked by the duke of Guise's defence of Metz.
Henceforth the waves of his fortune plashed to and fro until his
abdication without much ostensible loss or gain.

Charles had abundance of good sense, but little creative genius, and he
was by nature conservative. Consequently he never sought to impose any
new or common principles of administration on his several states. He
took them as he found them, and at most, as in the Netherlands, improved
upon what he found. So also in dealing with rival powers his policy may
be called opportunist. He was indeed accused by his enemies of emulating
Charlemagne, of aiming at universal empire. Historians have frequently
repeated this charge. Charles himself in later life laughingly denied
the imputatio