, and was fast converting the loosely knit provinces into a
state. By these means the ruler had wished to facilitate the process of
supply, but supply soon entailed redress, and the provinces could
recognize their common interests and grievances. Under Philip II. all
patriotic spirits passionately turned to this creation of his father as
the palladium of Netherland liberty. This process of consolidation was
infinitely difficult, and conflicts between local and central
authorities were frequent. That they were safely tided over was due to
Charles's moderation and his legal mind, which prompted him to draw back
when his case was bad. The harshest act of his life was the punishment
of the rebellion of Ghent. Yet the city met with little or no sympathy
in other quarters, because she had refused to act in concert with the
other members of Flanders and the other provinces. It was no mere local
quarrel, but a breach of the growing national unity.

In the Netherlands Charles showed none of the jealousy with which he
regarded the Spanish nobles. He encouraged the growth of large estates
through primogeniture; he gave the nobles the provincial governorships,
the great court offices, the command of the professional cavalry. In the
Order of the Golden Fleece and the long established presence of the
court at Brussels, he possessed advantages which he lacked in Spain. The
nobility were utilized as a link between the court and the provinces.
Very different was it with the church. By far the greater part of the
Netherlands fell under foreign sees, which were peculiarly liable to
papal exactions and to the intrigues of rival powers. Thus the usual
conflict between civil and ecclesiastical jurisdiction was peculiarly
acute. To remedy this dualism of authority and the consequent moral and
religious abuses, Charles early designed the creation of a national
diocesan system, and this was a darling project throughout his life. He
was doing what every German territorial prince, Catholic or Lutheran,
attempted, making bishoprics and abbeys dependent on the crown, with
nomination and institution in his hands, and with reasonable control
over taxation and jurisdiction. The papacy unfortunately thwarted him,
and the scheme, which under Charles would have been carried with
national assent, and created a national church, took the appearance
under Philip of alien domination.

If in Germany Charles was emperor, he was in the Netherlands territorial
p