not
introduced by Charles, and as yet amounted to little more than the
payment of members' expenses. Indirectly, crown influence increased
owing to the greater control which had gradually been exercised over the
composition of the municipal councils, which often returned the deputies
for the cortes. Charles was throughout nervous as to the power and
wealth of the greater nobles. They rather than the crown had conquered
the communes, and in the past they rather than the towns had been the
enemies of monarchy. He earnestly warned his son against giving them
administrative power, especially the duke of Alva, who in spite of his
sanctimonious and humble bearing cherished the highest ambitions: in
foreign affairs and war he might be freely used, for he was Spain's best
soldier. In the cortes of 1538 Charles came into collision with the
nobles as a class. They usually attended only on ceremonial occasions,
since they were exempted from direct taxation, which was the main
function of the cortes. Now, however, they were summoned, because
Charles was bent upon a scheme of indirect taxation which would have
affected all classes. They offered an uncompromising opposition, and
Charles somewhat angrily dismissed them, nor did he ever summon them
again. The peculiar Spanish system of departmental councils was further
developed, so that it may be said that the bureaucratic element was
slightly increasing just as the parliamentary element was on the wane.
The evils of this tendency were as yet scarcely apparent owing to
Charles's personal intervention in all departments. The councils
presented their reports through the minister chiefly concerned; Charles
heard their advice, and formed his own conclusions. He impressed upon
Philip that he should never become the servant of his ministers: let him
hear them all but decide himself. Naturally enough, he was well served
by his ministers, whom he very rarely changed. After the death of the
Piedmontese Gattinara he relied mainly on Nicolas Perrenot de Granvella
for Netherland and German affairs, and on Francisco de los Cobos for
Spanish, while the younger Granvella was being trained. From 1520 to
1555 these were the only ministers of high importance. Above all,
Charles never had a court favourite, and the only women who exercised
any influence were his natural advisers, his wife, his aunt Margaret and
his sister Mary. In all these ladies he was peculiarly fortunate.
Charles was never quite pop