which we
have to deal now are chiefly those of this century, but many of these
can claim a definite antiquity of several centuries at least. They
have been described by Wilson in his famous _Sketch_, and, in special
cases, more recently and more fully by Williams' and other writers.

THE CIVAITES.

While the Vishnuites have a dualistic, as well as idealistic
background, they are at present Vedantic, and may be divided to-day
simply into intelligent and unintelligent adherents of pantheism, the
former comprising the R[=a]ma sects, and the latter most of the
Krishnaites. On the other hand, in Civaism one must distinguish quite
sharply in time between the different sects that go by Civa's name. If
one look at the sects of modern times he will find that the most
degraded are dualistic, in so far as they may be said to have any
philosophy, and that idealistic Civaism is a remnant of the past. But
he will not find a pronounced sectarianism in any of these old
Vedantic aspects of Civaism. On the contrary, wherever Civaism is
pantheistic it is a Civaism which obtains only in certain ancient
schools of philosophy; where it is monotheistic it is among leaders
who have been influenced by the modern teaching of Islam, and regard
Civa merely as a name for the One God. It is necessary, therefore, as
it is everywhere in India, to draw as sharp a line as possible between
the beliefs of the vulgar and the learned. For from the earliest
period the former accepted perfunctorily the teaching of the latter,
but at heart and in cult they remained true to their own lights.

The older S[=a]nkhya form of Civaism was still found among the
P[=a]cupatas,'adherents of the Lord' (Pacupati) and Mahecvaras
('adherents of the great Lord'), who are mentioned in the epic and in
inscriptions of the fifth century. In the ninth century there was a
purely philosophical Civaism which is Vedantic. But neither in the
fact (which is by no means a certainty) that Cankara accepted Civa as
the name of the All-god, nor in the scholastic Civaite philosophy of
Kashmeer, which in the next two centuries was developed into a purely
idealistic system at the hands of Abhinavagupta and Som[=a]nanda, is
there any trace of a popular religion. Civa is here the pantheistic
god, but he is conceived as such only by a coterie of retired
schoolmen. On the other hand, the popular religions which spring up in
the twelfth century are, if Vedantic, chiefly Vishnuite, or, if
Civai