pal
passes in the western Carpathians are: Strany, Hrozinkau, Wlara, Lissa
and the Jablunka pass (1970 ft.), the principal route between Silesia
and Hungary, crossed by the Breslau-Budapest railway; and the Jordanow
pass. In the central Carpathians are: the road from Neumarkt to
Kesmark through the High Tatra, the Telgart pass over the Kralova Hola
from the Poprad to the Gran, and the Tylicz pass from Bartfeld to
Tarnow. In the eastern Carpathians are: the Dukla pass, the
Mezo-Laborcz pass crossed by the railway from Tokaj to Przemysl; the
Uszok pass, crossed by the road from Ungvar to Sambor; the Vereczke
pass, crossed by the railway from Lemberg to Munkacs; the Delatyn or
Korosmezo pass (3300 ft.), also called the Magyar route, crossed by
the railway from Kolomea to Debreczen; and the Stiol pass in Bukovina.

Geology.

The Carpathians consist of an outer zone of newer beds and an inner
zone of older rocks. Between the two zones lies a row of _Klippen_,
while towards the Hungarian plain the inner zone is bordered by a
fringe of volcanic eruptions of Tertiary age. The _outer zone_ is
continuous throughout the whole extent of the chain, and is remarkably
uniform both in composition and structure. It is formed almost
entirely of a succession of sandstones and shales of Cretaceous and
Tertiary age--the so-called Carpathian Sandstone--and these are thrown
into a series of isoclinal folds dipping constantly to the south. The
folding of this zone took place during the Miocene period. The _inner
zone_ is not continuous, and is much more complex in structure. It is
visible only in the west and in the east, while in the central
Carpathians, between the Hernad and the headwaters of the Theiss, it
is lost beneath the modern deposits of the Hungarian plain. In the
western Carpathians the inner zone consists of a foundation of
Carboniferous and older rocks, which were folded and denuded before
the deposition of the succeeding strata. In the outer portion of the
zone the Permian and Mesozoic beds are crushed and folded against the
core of ancient rocks; in the inner portion of the zone they rest upon
the old foundation with but little subsequent disturbance. In the
eastern Carpathians also, the Permian and Mesozoic beds are not much
folded except near the outer margin of the zone. The _Klippen_ are
isolated hills, chiefly of Jurassic limestone, rising up in