part of either sex, as
even paganism had often reprobated second marriages of women. Though
these extremists were presently branded as heretics for their eccentric
ultra-ascetic tenets (Montanists, Cathari), yet as early as Tertullian's
time (c. A.D. 220) the right of second marriages was theoretically
denied to the priesthood. This was logically followed by a revival of
the old Levitical rule which required that priests should marry none but
virgins (Lev. xxi. 7, 13). Both these rules, however, proved difficult
of enforcement and seem to have rested only on a vague basis of public
opinion; twice-married men (_digami_) were admitted to the priesthood by
Pope Calixtus I. (219-222), and even as late as the beginning of the 5th
century we find husbands of widows consecrated to the episcopate. The
so-called Apostolical Constitutions and Canons, the latter of which were
compiled in the 4th century, give us the first clear and fairly general
rules on the subject. Here we find "bishops and priests allowed to
retain the wives whom they may have had before ordination, but not to
marry in orders; the lower grades, deacons, subdeacons, &c., allowed to
marry after entering the church; but all were to be husbands of but one
wife, who must be neither a widow, a divorced woman nor a concubine"
(Lea i. 28). Many causes, however, were already at work to carry public
feeling beyond this stage. Quite apart from the few enthusiasts who
would have given a literal interpretation to the text in Matt, xix. 12,
vows of virginity became more and more frequent as the virtue itself was
lauded by ecclesiastical writers in language of increasing fervour.
These vows were at first purely voluntary and temporary; but public
opinion naturally grew less and less tolerant of those who, having once
formed and published so solemn a resolution, broke it afterwards. Again
not only was the church doctrine itself more or less consciously
influenced by the Manichaean tenet of the diabolical origin of all
matter, including the human body, but churchmen were also naturally
tempted to compete in asceticism with the many heretics who held this
tenet, and whose abstinence brought them so much popular consideration.
Moreover, in proportion as the clergy, no longer mere ringleaders of a
despised and persecuted sect, became beneficiaries and administrators of
rich endowments--and this at a time when the external safeguards against
embezzlement were comparatively weak--a