h later is
afforded by the narratives of the three Chinese pilgrims who all
describe the condition of religion in India and notice anything which
they thought singular or reprehensible. Fa-Hsien does not mention the
worship of any female deity,[308] nor does the Life of Vasubandhu, but
Asanga appears to allude to Saktism in one passage.[309] Hsuean Chuang
mentions images of Tara but without hinting at tantric ritual, nor
does I-Ching allude to it, nor does the evidence of art and
inscriptions attest its existence. It may have been known as a form of
popular superstition and even have been practised by individual
Bhikshus, but the silence of I-Ching makes it improbable that it was
then countenanced in the schools of Magadha. He complains[310] of
those who neglect the Vinaya and "devote their whole attention to the
doctrine of nothingness," but he says not a word about tantric
abuses.[311]

The change probably occurred in the next half century[312] for
Padma-Sambhava, the founder of Lamaism who is said to have resided in
Gaya and Nalanda and to have arrived in Tibet in 747 A.D., is
represented by tradition as a tantric wizard, and about the same time
translations of Tantras begin to appear in Chinese. The translations
of the sixth and seventh centuries, including those of I-Ching,
comprise a considerable though not preponderant number of Dharanis.
After the seventh century these became very numerous and several
Tantras were also translated.[313] The inference seems to be that
early in the eighth century Indian Buddhists officially recognized
Tantrism.

Tantric Buddhism was due to the mixture of Mahayanist teaching with
aboriginal superstitions absorbed through the medium of Hinduism,
though in some cases there may have been direct contact and mutual
influence between Mahayanism and aboriginal beliefs. But as a rule
what happened was that aboriginal deities were identified with Hindu
deities and Buddhism had not sufficient independence to keep its own
pantheon distinct, so that Vairocana and Tara received most of the
attributes, brahmanic or barbarous, given to Siva or Kali. The worship
of the goddesses, described in their Hinduized form as Durga, Kali,
etc., though found in most parts of India was specially prevalent in
the sub-himalayan districts both east and west. Now Padma-Sambhava was
a native of Udyana or Swat and Taranatha represents the chief
Tantrists[314] as coming from there or visiting it. Hsuean Chuang[315