. To whom was the ransom paid? For a
thousand years the answer was "to the devil." He had gained control of
man by man's sin, and Christ set man free. God then, who is love,
delivers us from evil through Christ, who pays the penalty of our
transgression to the enemy of God and man. There were other theories
also, indeed the germs of all later theories existed even in the second
century, but this one prevailed. The heretic Marcion taught a variant,
namely, the existence of two Gods, one of the Old Testament of law, the
other of the New Testament of grace. Christ, unjustly condemned by the
God of law, is given as reparation for all men who put their trust in
him. From Anselm's time (12th century A.D.) this theory of Marcion's is
held as orthodox in substance but is made monotheistic in form. St
Anselm denied that any penalty was due to the devil, and in terms of
feudal honour restated the problem. The conflict here is in God himself,
so to speak, between his immutable righteousness and his limitless
grace. In the sacrifice of Jesus these are reconciled. This doctrine of
St Anselm's attaches itself readily to texts of St Paul, for his
teachings contain undeniably the vicarious propitiatory element.

These theories have to do with the being to whom the ransom is paid or
the sacrifice offered. Another group of theories deals with the effect
of the death of Christ upon the sinner. One of these is the so-called
governmental theory, wherein the death of Christ is set forth as for the
sake of good government, so that the forgiveness of sins shall not be
thought a sign of laxity. Again, by other theologians the death of Jesus
is extolled because of the moral influence it exerts, since Christ's
devotion unto death incites a like devotion in us.

Excepting in relatively narrow circles these theories have been
seriously studied only by professed theologians. That Christ died for
us, and that we are saved by him, is indeed the living truth of the
Church in all ages, and a false impression of the fact is given by
dwelling upon theories as if they were central. At best they bear only
the relationship of philosophy to life.

Another explanation, or (better) system of beliefs, has been far more
influential in the Church. Belief in mysterious powers attached to food,
feasts, ceremonial rites and sacred things is all but universal.
Primitive man seldom connects sacrifice with notions of propitiation,
indeed only in highly ethicized relig