m criminals. The emperor Trajan
incorporated about A.D. 100 the college of _Pistores_ (millers and
bakers), but its members were employers, not operatives. The work of a
bakery is depicted in a set of bas-reliefs on the tomb of a master
Pistor named Eurysaces, who flourished about a century before the
foundation of the college. Here the grain is being brought and paid for;
mills driven by horse and ass (or mule) power are busy; men are sieving
out the bran from the flour by hand (bolters); bakers are moulding
loaves on a board; an oven of domelike shape is being charged by means
of a shovel (peel); and baskets of bread are being weighed on the one
hand and carried off on men's backs on the other.

_Regulation of Sale._--In the middle ages bakers were subjected to
special regulations in all European lands. These regulations were
supposed to be conceived in the interests of bread consumers, and no
doubt were intended to secure fair dealing on the part of bread vendors.
The legislators appear, however, to have been unduly biased against the
baker, who was often beset by harassing restrictions. Bakers were formed
into gilds, which were under the control, not only of their own
officials, but of the municipality. In London the bakers formed a
brotherhood as early as 1155, and were incorporated in 1307. There were
two distinct corporate bodies concerned with bread-making, the Company
of White Bakers and the Company of Brown Bakers; these were nominally
united in 1509, but the union did not become complete till the middle of
the 17th century. In Austria, bakers who offended against police
regulations respecting the sale of bread were liable, until
comparatively recent times, to fine, imprisonment and even corporal
punishment. In Turkey the lot of the baker was very hard. Baron de Tott,
writing of Constantinople in the 18th century, says that it was usual,
when bread went to famine prices, to hang a baker or two. He would have
us believe that it was the custom of master bakers to keep a second
hand, who, in consideration of a small increase of his weekly wage, was
willing to appear before the cadi in case a victim were wanted. A
barbarous punishment, inflicted in Turkey and in Egypt on bakers who
sold light or adulterated bread, consisted in nailing the culprit by his
ear to the door-post of his shop. In France a decree of 1863 relieved
bakers from many of the restrictions under which they previously
suffered, but it did not tou