ious
or jade Emperor, who is esteemed the supreme ruler of the world, was
created or at least brought into notice about 1012 A.D. by the Emperor
Chen Tsung[568] who pretended to have correspondence with him. He is
probably an adaptation of Indra and is also identified with a prince
of ancient China, but cannot be called a popular hero like Rama or
Krishna, and has not the same hold on the affections of the people.

But Taoism is also the name commonly given not only to this fanciful
church but also to the philosophic ideas expounded in the Tao-te-ching
and in the works of Chuang-tzu. The Taoist priesthood claim this
philosophy, but the two have no necessary connection. Taoism as
philosophy represents a current of thought opposed to Confucianism,
compared with which it is ascetic, mystic and pantheistic, though
except in comparison it does not deserve such epithets. My use of
pantheistic in particular may raise objection, but it seems to me that
Tao, however hard to define, is analogous to Brahman, the impersonal
Spirit of Hindu philosophy. The universe is the expression of Tao and
in conforming to Tao man finds happiness. For Confucianism, as for
Europe, man is the pivot and centre of things, but less so for
Taoism and Buddhism. Philosophic Taoism, being somewhat abstruse and
unpractical, might seem to have little chance of becoming a popular
superstition. But from early times it was opposed to Confucianism, and
as Confucianism became more and more the hall-mark of the official and
learned classes, Taoism tended to become popular, at the expense of
degrading itself. From early times too it dallied with such
fascinating notions as the acquisition of miraculous powers and
longevity. But, as an appeal to the emotional and spiritual sides of
humanity, it was, if superior to Confucianism, inferior to Buddhism.

Buddhism, unlike Confucianism and Taoism, entered China as a foreign
religion, but, in using this phrase, we must ask how far any system of
belief prevalent there is accepted as what we call a religion. Even in
Ceylon and Burma people follow the observances of two religions or at
least of a religion and a superstition, but they would undoubtedly
call themselves Buddhists. In China the laity use no such designations
and have no sense of exclusive membership. For them a religion is
comparable to a club, which they use for special purposes. You may
frequent both Buddhist and Taoist temples just as you may belong to
bot