ssity for giving a first representation to different interests,
especially in view of the election of the popes, has for a long time
past thrown open the Sacred College to representatives of the episcopate
of the Catholic nations. From the 11th century onwards are to be found
cases in which the pope summoned to its ranks persons who did not belong
to the Roman Church, particularly abbots, who were not even required to
give up the direction of their monasteries. In the following century
occur a few cases of bishops being created cardinals without having to
leave their see, and of cardinals upon whom were conferred foreign
bishoprics (cf. Thomassin, loc. cit. cap. 114, n. 9). Of the cardinals
created by the popes of Avignon the majority were French, and in 1331
John XXII. remarks that 17 cardinals were French out of the 20 who then
existed. The councils of Constance and Basel forbade that more than a
third of the cardinals should belong to the same country. After the
return of the popes to Rome and after the Great Schism, the ancient
customs were soon resumed; the cardinals were for the most part
Italians, the entire number of cardinals' hats conferred on the other
Catholic nations only amounting to a minority. The non-Italian
cardinals, with rare exceptions, are not resident in Rome; together with
the rank of cardinal they receive a dispensation from residing _in
curia_; they are none the less, as cardinals, priests or deacons of the
Roman Church.

Qualifications.

The reform of the College of Cardinals inaugurated by the councils of
Constance and Basel, though without much immediate success, was not only
concerned with the number and nationality of the cardinals; it also
dealt with conditions of age, learning and other qualifications: men of
the most honourable character, aged not less than thirty, were to be
chosen; at least a third were to be chosen from among the graduates of
the universities; persons of royal blood and princes were not to be
admitted in too great numbers, and lastly, relatives of the pope were to
be set aside. Moreover, in order to secure the effectiveness of these
reforms, selection of the new cardinals was to be made by the votes of
the members of the Sacred College given in writing. This mode of control
was perhaps excessive, and the reform consequently remained ineffective.
Up to the middle of the 16th century there were still instances of
unfortunate and even scandalous appointments to the