r
government in some countries upon the monarchial institutions of
others. This can never be {427} properly determined, because we know
not what would have taken place in these monarchies had republicanism
never prevailed anywhere. When republicanism arose in France and
America, monarchy was alarmed everywhere; and again, when the
revolutionary wave swept over Europe in 1848, monarchy trembled.
Wherever, indeed, the waves of democracy have swept onward they have
found monarchy raising breakwaters against them. Yet with all this
opposition there has been a liberalizing tendency in these same
monarchial governments. Monarchy has been less absolute and less
despotic; the people have had more constitutional rights granted them,
greater privileges to enjoy; and monarchies have been more careful as
to their acts, believing that the people hold in their hands the means
of retribution. The reforming influence of democratic ideas has been
universal and uninterrupted.

The World War has been iconoclastic in breaking up old forms of
government and has given freedom to the democratic spirit and in many
cases has developed practical democracy. Along with this, forces of
radicalism have come to the front as an expression of long-pent
feelings of injustice, now for the first time given opportunity to
assert and express themselves. The ideal of democracy historically
prevalent in Europe has been the rule of the "lower classes" at the
expense of the "upper classes." This theory has been enhanced by the
spread of Marxian socialism, which advocates the dominance and rule of
the wage-earning class. The most serious attempt to put this idea in
practice occurred in Russia with disastrous results.

SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY

1. Why did the French Revolution fail to establish liberty?

2. What were the lasting effects of the English Commonwealth?

3. What were the causes of liberal government in the Netherlands?

4. The reform acts in 1832 and in 1867 in England.

5. The chief causes of trouble between England and Ireland.

6. The growth of democracy in the United States.

{428}

7. Enumerate the most important modern political reforms. What are
some needed political reforms?

8. England's influence on American law and government.

9. Investigate the population in your community to determine the
extent of human equality.

10. City government under the municipal manager plan; also commission
plan.