the names can often be
discovered only by a careful comparison of the modern form with such
ancient forms as are to be found in charters, ancient histories, and
other early documents. By the aid of these a certain amount of work has
been done in the subject, but it is still largely an unworked field. The
most satisfactory method of characterizing English place-nomenclature is
to deal with it historically and chronologically, showing the influence
of the successive nations who have borne sway in this island. The Celtic
influence is to be found scattered evenly up and down the country so far
as names of rivers and mountains are concerned; in names of towns it is
chiefly confined to the west. Roman influence is slight but evenly
distributed. English influence is all-pervading, though in the northern
and north-midland counties this influence has been encroached upon by
Scandinavian influence. Norman influence is not confined to any
particular district.

_Celtic._--Though scattered notices of towns, cities and rivers in
Britain are to be found in various early Roman writers, it is not till
the time of Ptolemy (2nd century), who constructed a map of the
island, and of the itinerary of Antonine (beginning of the 3rd
century) that we have much information as to the cities and towns of
Britain. We there learn that the following place-names are ultimately
of Celtic origin:--Brougham, Catterick, York, Lincoln (_Lindum_),
Manchester (_Mancunium_), Doncaster (_Danum_), Wroxeter
(_Viroconium_), Lichfield (_Letocetum_), Gloucester (_Glevum_),
Cirencester (_Corinium_), Colchester (_Camulodunum_), London,
Reculver, Richborough (_Rutupiae_), Dover, Lymne, Isle of Wight,
Dorchester (_Durnovaria_), Sarum, Exeter (_Isca_), Brancaster
(_Branodunum_), Thanet. We also have the names of the following
rivers:--Eden, Dee, Trent, Yare, Colne, Thames, Kennet, Churne, Exe,
Severn, Tamar. Gildas, writing in the 6th century, speaks of the
twenty-eight cities of the Britons. Nennius' _Historia Britonum_ gives
what purports to be a list of these cities. Of these, excluding Welsh
ones, we may with some certainty identify Canterbury (_Caint_),
Caerleon-on-Usk, Leicester (_Lerion_), Penzelwood, Carlisle,
Colchester, Grantchester (_Granth_), London, Worcester
(_Guveirangon_), Doncaster (_Daun_), Wroxeter (_Guoricon_), Chester
(_Legion_--this is Roman), Lichfield (_Licitcsith_) and Gloucester
(_Gloui_). Others l