aw at Gottingen.
From 1790, however, he became a disciple of Kant, published _Aphorismen
nach Kants Lehre vorgelegt_ (1793), and became professor of philosophy
at Gottingen (1802), where he died on the 9th of August 1828. As a
philosopher, he is interesting for his criticism of the theory of the
"thing-in-itself" (_Ding-an-sich_). For the pure reason, as described in
the _Kritik_, the "thing-in-itself" can be only an inconceivable
"something-in-general"; any statement about it involves the predication
of Reality, Unity and Plurality, which belong not to the absolute thing
but to phenomena. On the other hand, the subject is known by the fact of
will, and the object by that of resistance; the cognizance of willing is
the assertion of absolute reality in the domain of relative knowledge.
This doctrine has since been described as absolute Virtualism. Following
this train of thought, Bouterwek left the Kantian position through his
opposition to its formalism. In later life he inclined to the views of
F.H. Jacobi, whose letters to him (published at Gottingen, 1868) shed
much light on the development of his thought. His chief philosophical
works are _Ideen zu einer allgemeinen Apodiktik_ (Gottingen and Halle,
1799); _Aesthetik_ (Leipzig, 1806; Gottingen, 1815 and 1824); _Lehrbuch
der philos. Vorkenntnisse_ (Gottingen, 1810 and 1820); _Lehrbuch der
philos. Wissenschaften_ (Gottingen, 1813 and 1820). In these works he
dissociated himself from the Kantian school. His chief critical work was
the _Geschichte der neuern Poesie und Beredsamkeit_ (Gottingen, 12
vols., 1801-1819), of which the history of Spanish literature has been
published separately in French, Spanish and English. The _Geschichte_ is
a work of wide learning and generally sound criticism, but it is not of
equal merit throughout. He also wrote three novels, _Paulus Septimus_
(Halle, 1795), _Graf Donamar_ (Gottingen, 1791) and _Ramiro_ (Leipzig,
1804), and published a collection of poems (Gottingen, 1802).

BOUTHILLIER, CLAUDE, SIEUR DE FOUILLETOURTE (1581-1652), French
statesman, began life as an advocate. In 1613 he was councillor in the
parlement of Paris, and in 1619 became councillor of state and a
secretary to the queen-mother, Marie de' Medici. The connexion of his
father, Denis Bouthillier (d. 1622), with Cardinal Richelieu secured for
him the title of secretary of state in 1628, and he was able to remain
on good terms with both Marie de' Medici and Richel