to be
farz.

The actions may be done in silence, or prayer may be repeated. Such a
recital is a mustahab, not a sunnat or farz order. It is not obligatory. A
specimen of these prayers is given in a note.[187]

(2). Ghusl is an ablution of the whole body after certain legal
defilements, and should be made as follows. The person should put on clean
clothes and perform the wazu, then he should say: "I make ghusl to put away
impurity." All being ready he should wash himself in the following order.
He must pour water over the right shoulder three times, then over the left
three times and, lastly, on his head {191} also the same number of times.
The three farz conditions are that (1) the mouth must be rinsed, (2) water
be put into the nostrils, and (3) the whole body be washed. If one hair
even is left dry the whole act is rendered vain and useless. All other
particulars are sunnat or mustahab.

There are obvious reasons why an explanation of the causes which vitiate a
purification, or of the cases in which ghusl is required, cannot be given
here. Every standard Muslim work on Fikh, or law, deals fully with the
subject. Nothing is more calculated to show the student of Islam how much
the Sunnat rules in the practical life of Muslims. The Traditions have
raised the most trivial ceremonial observances into duties of the greatest
importance. That there may be spiritually minded men in Islam is not to be
denied; but a system of religion which declares that the virtue of prayer
depends practically on an ablution, and that that ablution is useless
unless done in the order prescribed, is one well calculated to make men
formalists and nothing more. It comes to this, that, if a man when making
wazu washes his left hand before his right, or his nose before his teeth,
he cannot lawfully say the daily Namaz enjoined on all Muslims. None but
those who have studied Muslim treatises on the subject can conceive of the
puerile discussions which have taken place on points apparently trivial,
but which from their connection with the Sunnat are deemed by learned
Muslims of great importance.

(3). Tayammum, or purification by sand, is allowable under the following
circumstances. (1) When water cannot be procured except at a distance of
one kos (about 2 miles); (2) in case of sickness when the use of water
might be injurious; (3) when water cannot be obtained without incurring
danger from an enemy, a beast or a reptile; and (4) when on the occ