e canker of social jealousy and unfulfilled aspirations; it
ensures him companionship and a sense of community with others in
like case with himself. The caste organization is to the Hindu his
club, his trade union, his benefit society, his philanthropic
society. An Indian without caste, as things stand at present, is not
quite easy to imagine." (Sidney Low, _Vision of India_, 1906, ch. xv.
p. 263).

[10] Muir's _Sanskrit Texts_, vol. i. (1868).

[11] _Ideen_, i. 610.

[12] The idea of a conquering white race is strangely repeated in the
later history of India. The Rajputs and Brahmans are succeeded by the
Mussulmans, the Turks, the Afghans. There was an aristocracy of
colour under the Mogul dynasty. But under an Indian climate it could
not last many generations. The Brahmans of southern India were as
black as the lowest castes; the Chandalas are said to be descended
from Brahmans. According to Manu the Chandala must not dwell within
town; his sole wealth must be dogs and asses; his clothes must
consist of the mantles of deceased persons; his dishes must be broken
pots. Surely this vituperative description must apply to an
aboriginal race.

[13] _Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenlandischen Gesellschaft_, Band
i. (quoted by Muir, _ubi supra_).

[14] _De Origine Castarum_ (Gottingen).

[15] _History of India_, vol. i. (1867-1871).

[16] For a characteristic appreciation of caste see Comte, _Cours de
philosophic positive_, vi. c. 8. He regards the hereditary
transmission of functions under the rule of a sacerdotal class as a
necessary and universal stage of social progress, greatly modified by
war and colonization. The morality of caste was, he contends, an
improvement on what preceded; but its permanence was impossible,
because "the political rule of intelligence is hostile to human
progress." The seclusion of women and the preservation of industrial
inventions were features of caste; and the higher priests were also
magistrates, philosophers, artists, engineers, and physicians.

[17] _De la religion_, ii. 8.

[18] The great mass of the Brahmans were in reality mendicants, who
lived on the festivals of birth, marriage, and death, and on the
fines exacted for infractions of caste rule. Others had
establishments called Muths, endowed with Jagir villages. There were
two distinct