alis_ is a tyrant"
(_quot curiales, tot tyranni_), says a fourth century writer.

The exactions of the imperial officers proved more than the _curiales_
could meet, and they sought to withdraw from their order and its
obligations. But the government required responsible landholders and so
they were forbidden to dispose of their properties or to leave their place
of residence without special permission. And when they tried to find
exemption by entering the imperial senatorial order, the military or civil
service, or the clergy, these avenues of escape were likewise closed. Only
those who had filled all the municipal offices might become _clarissimi_
and immune from the curial obligations, and only clergy of the rank of
bishops were excused, while the lower orders had to supply a substitute or
surrender two-thirds of their property before they could leave the
_curia_. Valentinian I attempted to aid the _curiales_ by appointing
officials known as _defensores __civitatium_ or _plebis_--"defenders of the
cities" or "of the plebs"--whose duty it was to check unjust exactions and
protect the common people against officials and judges. These _defensores_
were at first persons of influence, chosen by the municipalities and
approved by the emperor. They were empowered to try certain cases
themselves, and had the right to address themselves directly to the
emperor without reference to the provincial governor. However, the
_defensores_ accomplished little, and in the fifth century their office
had become an additional obligatory service resting upon the _curiales_.
By 429 A. D. hardly a _curialis_ with adequate property qualifications
could be found in any city, and by the sixth century the class of
municipal landholders had practically disappeared.

*The hereditary corporations.* We have seen how, in the course of the
third century, the professional corporations were burdened with the duty
of performing certain public services in the interest of the communities
to which they belonged. The first step taken by the state to insure the
performance of these services was to make this duty a charge which rested
permanently upon the property of the members of the corporations
(_corporati_), no matter into whose possession it passed. But men as well
as money were needed for the performance of these charges, and
consequently, in order to prevent a decline in the numbers of the
_corporati_, the state made membership in these associations an