a and Africa, whom he or his generals had subjugated during his
triumvirate.

At the age of thirty-three Octavian had made good his claim to the
political inheritance of Julius Caesar. His victory over Antony closed the
century of civil strife which had begun with the tribunate of Tiberius
Gracchus. War and the proscriptions had exacted a heavy toll from Romans
and Italians; Greece, Macedonia and Asia had been brought to the verge of
ruin; the whole empire longed for peace. Everywhere was Octavian hailed as
the savior of the world and, as the founder of a new golden age, men were
ready to worship him as a god.

IV. SOCIETY AND INTELLECTUAL LIFE IN THE LAST CENTURY OF THE REPUBLIC

*The upper classes.* The characteristics of Roman society in the last
century of the republic are the same which we have previously seen
developing as a result of Rome's imperial expansion. The upper classes of
society comprise the senatorial nobility and the equestrians; the former
finding their goal in public office, the latter in banking and financial
ventures, and both alike callously exploiting the subjects of Rome in
their own interests. Of this one example will suffice. Marcus Brutus, the
conspirator, who enjoyed a high repute for his honorable character, loaned
money to the cities of Cyprus at the exorbitant rate of 48% and influenced
the senate to declare the contract valid. He did not hesitate to secure
for his agents military authority with which to enforce payment, and was
much disappointed when Cicero, as governor of Cilicia and Cyprus, refused
to give his representative such power or to allow him to collect more than
12% interest on his debt.

As corruption characterized the public, so did extravagance and luxury the
private life of the governing classes. The palaces of the wealthy in Rome
were supplemented by villas in the Sabine hills, in the watering places of
the Campanian coast, and other attractive points. The word villa, which
originally designated a farm house, now meant a country seat equipped with
all the modern conveniences of city life.

The solidarity of the family life which had been the foundation of Roman
morality was fast disappearing. In general, wives no longer came under the
authority (_manus_) of their husbands upon marriage, and so retained
control of their properties acquired by inheritance or dowry through a
guardian from their own families. Consequently women played an
increasingly independent