to the poppy were given
over to other crops, in consequence of the imperial edict aimed at the
suppression of opium-smoking (see Sec. _History_).

_Mining._--The mineral resources of China are great, but the government
has shown a marked repugnance to allow foreigners to work mines, and
the mineral wealth has been very inadequately exploited. Mining
operations are controlled by the Board of Commerce. In 1907 this board
drew up regulations respecting the constitution of mining and other
companies. They contained many features against which foreign powers
protested.

Coal.

Coal, iron, copper and tin are the principal minerals found in China;
there are also extensive deposits of coal and other minerals in
Manchuria. In China proper the largest coal measures are found in
Shan-si, Hu-nan, Kwei-chow and Sze-ch'uen. There are also important
coalfields in Chih-li, Shan-tung, Shen-si, Ho-nan, Yun-nan, Hu-peh and
Kwang-tung--and almost all of the seven other provinces have also coal
measures of more or less value. The lack of transport facilities as
well as the aversion from the employment of foreign capital has
greatly hindered the development of mining. Numerous small mines have
been worked for a long period by the natives in the province of
Hu-nan. There are two principal local fields in this province, one
lying in the basin of the Lei river and yielding anthracite, and the
other in the basin of the Siang river yielding bituminous coal. Both
rivers drain into the Yangtsze, and there is thus an easy outlet by
water to Hankow. The quality of the coal, however, is inferior, as the
stratification has been much disturbed, and the coal-seams have been
in consequence crushed and broken. The largest coalfield in China lies
in the province of Shan-si. Coal and iron have here been worked by the
natives from time immemorial, but owing to the difficulty of transport
they have attained only a limited local circulation. The whole of
southern Shan-si, extending over 30,000 sq. m., is one vast coalfield,
and contains, according to the estimate of Baron von Richthofen,
enough coal to last the world at the present rate of consumption for
several thousand years. The coal-seams, which are from 20 to 36 ft. in
thickness, rest conformably on a substructure of limestone. The
stratification is throughout undisturbed and practically horizontal.
As the limestone bed is raised some 2000