indeed institutions
termed colleges, supported to some extent from public funds, where
advanced students could prosecute their studies; but before the
movement initiated by the viceroy Chang Chih-tung after the
China-Japan War of 1894, they hardly counted as factors in the
national education. The private tutors, on the other hand, were
plentiful and cheap. After a series of preliminary trials the student
obtained his first qualification by examination held before the
literary chancellor in the prefecture to which he belonged. This was
termed the _Siuts'ai_, or licentiate's degree, and was merely a
qualification to enter for the higher examinations. The number of
licentiate degrees to be given was, however, strictly limited; those
who failed to get in were set back to try again, which they might do
as often as they pleased. There was no limit of age. Those selected
next proceeded to the great examination held at the capital of each
province, once in three years, before examiners sent from Peking for
the purpose. Here again the number who passed was strictly limited.
Out of 10,000 or 12,000 competitors only some 300 or 350 could obtain
degrees. The others, as before, must go back and try again. This
degree, termed _Chue jen_, or provincial graduate, was the first
substantial reward of the student's ambition, and of itself qualified
for the public service, though it did not immediately nor necessarily
lead to active employment. The third and final examination took place
at Peking, and was open to provincial graduates from all parts of the
empire. Out of 6000 competitors entering for this final test, which
was held triennially, some 325 to 350 succeeded in obtaining the
degree of _Chin shih_, or metropolitan graduate. These were the
finally selected men who became the officials of the empire.

Several other doors were, however, open by which admission to the
ranks of bureaucracy could be obtained. In the first place, to
encourage scholars to persevere, a certain number of those who failed
to reach the _chue jen_, or second degree, were allowed, as a reward of
repeated efforts, to get into a special class from which selection for
office might be made. Further, the government reserved to itself the
right to nominate the sons and grandsons of distinguished deceased
public servants without examination. And, lastly, by a system of
"recommendation," young me