prime minister, the
philosopher Kuan-tzi. Other states attained leadership by success in
warfare. Among these leaders we see duke Mu of T'sin (659 B.C.), a state
on the western boundary which was so much influenced by amalgamation
with its Hunnic neighbours that the purely Chinese states regarded it as
a barbarian country. The emperor was in those days a mere shadow;
several of his vassals had grown strong enough to claim and be granted
the title "king," and they all tried to annihilate their neighbours by
ruse in diplomacy and by force of arms, without referring to their
common ruler for arbitration, as they were in duty bound. In this
_bellum omnium contra omnes_ the state of Ts'in, in spite of repeated
reverses, remained in possession of the field.

The period of this general struggle is spoken of by Chinese historians
as that of "The Contending States." Like that of the "Five Leaders" it
is full of romance; and the examples of heroism, cowardice, diplomatic
skill and philosophical equanimity which fill the pages of its history
have become the subject of elegant literature in prose and poetry. The
political development of the Chou dynasty is the exact counterpart of
that of its spiritual life as shown in the contemporaneous literature.
The orthodox conservative spirit which reflects the ethical views of
the emperor and his royal partisans is represented by the name
Confucius (551-479 B.C.). The great sage had collected old traditions
and formulated the moral principles which had been dormant in the
Chinese nation for centuries. His doctrines tended to support the
maintenance of central power; so did those of other members of his
school, especially Mencius. Filial love showed itself as obedience to
the parents in the family and as loyalty to the emperor and his
government in public life. It was the highest virtue, according to the
Confucian school. The history of the nation as taught in the
_Shu-king_ was in its early part merely an illustration of
Confucianist ideas about good and bad government. The perpetual advice
to rulers was: "Be like Yau, Shun and Yue, and you will be right."
Confucianism was dominant during the earlier centuries of the Chou
dynasty, whose lucky star began to wane when doctrines opposed to it
got the upper hand. The philosophical schools built up on the
doctrines of Lau-tzi had in the course of generations become
antagonistic, and found favour