e governing noun, is
often identical with the oblique base, or else it is formed by adding
suffixes.

The numeral system is decimal and higher numbers are counted in tens;
thus Tamil _pattu_, "ten"; _iru-badu_, "two tens," "twenty."

The personal pronoun of the first person in most dialects has a double
form in the plural, one including and the other excluding the person
addressed. Thus, Tamil _n[=a]m_, "we," i.e. I and you; _n[=a]ngal_,
"we," i.e. I and they.

There is no relative pronoun. Relative clauses are effected by using
relative participles. Thus in Telugu the sentence "the book which you
gave to me" must be translated _m[=i]ru n[=a]ku iccina pus-takamu_,
i.e. "you me-to given book." There are several such participles in
use. Thus from the Telugu verb _kot[t.]a_, "to strike," are formed
_kot[t.]-ut-unna_, "that strikes," _kot[t.]-i-na_, "that struck,"
_kot[t.][=e]_, "that would strike," "that usually strikes." By adding
pronouns, or the terminations of pronouns, to such forms, nouns are
derived which denote the person who performs the action. Thus from
Telugu _kot[t.][=e]_ and _v[=a]du_, "he," is formed
_kot[t.][=e]-v[=a]du_, "one who usually strikes." Such forms are used
as ordinary verbs, and the usual verbal forms of Dravidian languages
can broadly be described as such nouns of agency. Thus, the Telugu,
_kot[t.]in[=a]du_, "he struck," can be translated literally "a striker
in the past."

Verbal tenses distinguish the person and number of the subject by
adding abbreviated forms of the personal pronouns. Thus in Kanarese we
have _m[=a]did-enu_, "I did"; _m[=a]did-i_, "thou didst";
_m[=a]did-evu_, "we did"; _m[=a]did-aru_, "they did."

One of the most characteristic features of the Dravidian verb is the
existence of a separate negative conjugation. It usually has only one
tense and is formed by adding the personal terminations to a negative
base. Thus, Kanarese _m[=a]d-enu_, "I did not"; _m[=a]d-evu_, "we did
not"; _m[=a]d-aru_, "they did not."

The vocabulary has adopted numerous Aryan loan-words. This was a
necessary consequence of the early connexion with the superior Aryan
civilization.

The oldest Dravidian literature is largely indebted to the Aryans
though it goes back to a very early date. Tamil, Malay[=a]lam,
Kanarese and Telugu are the principal literary languages. The language
of literature in all of them differs c