made for their subsistence, unincumbered by
their predecessors, who, like them, were but tenants for life. You have
successfully and completely pulverized Mr. Adams's system of orders,
and his opening the mantle of republicanism to every government of
laws, whether consistent or not with natural right. Indeed, it must be
acknowledged, that the term republic is of very vague application
in every language. Witness the self-styled republics of Holland,
Switzerland, Genoa, Venice, Poland. Were I to assign to this term a
precise and definite idea, I would say, that, purely and simply,
it means a government by its citizens in mass, acting directly and
personally, according to rules established by the majority: and that
every other government is more or less republican, in proportion as it
has in its composition more or less of this ingredient of the direct
action of the citizens. Such a government is evidently restrained to
very narrow limits of space and population. I doubt if it would be
practicable beyond the extent of a New England township. The first
shade from this pure element, which, like that of pure vital air, cannot
sustain life of itself, would be where the powers of the government,
being divided, should be exercised each by representatives chosen by the
citizens either _pro hac vice_, or for such short terms as should render
secure the duty of expressing the will of their constituents. This I
should consider as the nearest approach to a pure republic, which is
practicable on a large scale of country or population. And we have
examples of it in some of our State constitutions, which, if not
poisoned by priestcraft, would prove its excellence over all mixtures
with other elements; and, with only equal doses of poison, would still
be the best. Other shades of republicanism may be found in other
forms of government, where the executive, judiciary, and legislative
functions, and the different branches of the latter, are chosen by the
people more or less directly, for longer terms of years, or for life,
or made hereditary; or where there are mixtures of authorities, some
dependent on, and others independent of the peopje. The further the
departure from direct and constant control by the citizens, the less has
the government of the ingredient of republicanism; evidently none
where the authorities are hereditary, as in France, Venice, &c. or
self-chosen, as in Holland; and little, where for life, in proportion as
the lif