in other words, the mule in one case does the
work of the roving frame to a certain extent.

The general opinion seems to be that in the spinning mills, roughly
speaking, 75 per cent. of the increased output per operative may be
imputed to improved machinery, 25 per cent. to increased intensity of
labour in regard to quantity of spindles or "speeding up."

In the weaving processes more specific measurement is possible, though
even there much depends upon the quality of yarn that is used. Here a
reduction in the working day is followed by an increase in speed
without any labour-saving improvements. Previous to the Factory
legislation of 1878, the speed of looms was generally from 170 to 190
picks per minute during the ten hours' day. In the course of about two
years after the reduction of hours (6 per cent.) the general speed had
become 190 to 200 picks, without change in machinery or raw material,
a growth which must have proportionately increased the intensity of
the work of weaving. A deterioration in the quality of the raw
material used for producing cotton cloth is also commonly assigned as
a fact involving more care on the part of the weaver, and increased
danger and disagreeability of work owing to the heavy sizing and
steaming it has brought into vogue. It is not easy to argue much
respecting increased intensity of labour from the increased average of
looms attended, for, as was recently admitted in evidence before the
Labour Commission, everything depends upon the class of looms and of
goods they are manufacturing. "It is quite as easy to drive five looms
of some classes as two of others."[203] But the prevalence of the
"driving" system, by which the overlookers are paid a bonus on the
product of the looms under their charge, has admittedly induced, as it
was obviously designed to do, an increased intensity of labour.

Summing up the evidence, we are able to conclude that the shortening
of working hours and the improvements in machinery has been attended
by an increased effort per unit of labour time. In the words of an
expert, "the change to those actually engaged in practical work is to
lessen the amount of hard manual work of one class, but to increase
their responsibility, owing to being placed in charge of more
machinery, and that of a more expensive kind; while the work of the
more lowly skilled will be intensified, owing to increased production,
and that from an inferior raw material. I mean that to the