on
concentrated upon the number for so long a time. We recall also the
frequency of errors of one unit too few and one unit too many. These
were easily interpreted as miscounts on the part of Hans, but in truth
were the result of the poorly concentrated attention of the questioner.
Added to this was the seeming independence and self-sufficiency of the
horse. Often the number given by him was other than that desired by his
master. Usually Hans was in the wrong in such cases, but sometimes, too,
he was right. At any rate, this served to give the impression of
independence of thought which his master so thoroughly believed he
possessed, and which was the goal of his endeavors--though as a matter
of fact he was farther removed than ever from that goal.

Some may ask: Does not this whole process partake of the essentials of
all training, (though cumbersome and misunderstood, to be sure), and is
there any need of investigating whether or not the actual development
was of the sort here outlined, or whether it actually took the course
common to all training?

In order to answer this question we must determine more specifically
what we mean by the term "training". Usually we take it to mean the
establishment in the animal, of definite habits of motor reaction in
response to certain stimuli purposely selected by the trainer, and
without involving any process of animal consciousness other than
association. Such a conception may be applied also to man, if we assume
that the higher thought processes can be eliminated. If that were the
case, the above definition would not have to be changed, not even with
regard to the word "animal", for we must take it in the antique sense of
"zoon", a signification readopted by modern zoology. The concept may be
widened, however, by omitting the differentia of "purpose", or even
more, by including the habitual association of ideas or images (instead
of movements) with certain sensory stimuli. But in so doing, we must
bear in mind that we are going beyond the usual content which in
everyday practice is put into the term "training". Especially, when we
cease to regard the presence of purpose in the trainer's mind (both in
giving the stimulus as well as in the habituation of the animal to them)
as essential. When this is done, the conception of training really
resolves itself into the much wider conception of habit-building, and
the whole discussion becomes merely a quarrel over words. In order to
o