d
for pecuniary reasons only. Nor does one read that any person could work
with these animals off-hand, which was the characteristic feature of the
Osten horse.[AN] In many cases we find mention made of the signs to
which the animals reacted. Thus for the beginning or stopping of the
animal's scraping or tapping, the signals were respectively raising and
lowering of the eyes on the part of the trainer,[113] lowering and
raising of the whip[114] or of the arm, stepping forward and
backward,[115] and as a closing signal a slight bending forward.[116]
The signals for beginning and ceasing to bark in the case of dogs, were
the trainer's commands to "speak", and, at the same time, his looking at
the dog, and then looking away for a closing sign;[117] or a
mouth-movement on the part of the trainer and then a withdrawing of the
left hand which had been resting on the hip.[118] Among the signals for
nodding and shaking the head we find the following mentioned: raising
and lowering the hand or arm[119] or the whip;[120] a movement of the
hand toward the horse's nose, as a signal for nodding, and an
arm-movement as a signal for shaking the head.[121] For this last, we
find recommended also a slight breathing upon the animal,[122] and--in
the case of dogs--a mouth-movement simulating blowing, or a turn of the
fingers.[123] (We will not dwell upon the many signals for selecting
objects, which are mentioned, since we have already discussed this point
on page 230f). In all these instances it is plain that we have to do
with purely voluntary and "artificial" signals. The only example of
involuntary signs which Mr. von Osten could have found in literature,
was that of Huggins's dog, which need not be considered here, since, as
was said on page 177, the really effective signs in that case were not
discovered. A third means by which Mr. von Osten might have gained a
knowledge of the involuntary, natural expressive signs, would have been
by observing others. If he had had opportunity of observing another von
Osten and another Hans, he might have gotten at the secret. But since
this was not the case, this possibility vanishes. A fourth possibility
is self-observation. We would then have to assume that Mr. von Osten at
first really tried to educate the horse to think, but soon recognized
the fruitlessness of such an attempt. At the same time, he then would
have noticed his own involuntary movements and their effect upon the
horse, and having