umably, however, it might be possible, under conditions
and with methods of instruction more in accord with the life-needs of
the horse, to awaken in a fuller measure those mental activities which
would be called into play to meet those needs.

[Footnote AP: Buffon,[124] the great naturalist, expresses himself
not less pessimistically in his own brilliant manner: "Un animal
domestique est un esclave dont on s'amuse, dont on se sert, dont on
abuse, qu'on altere, qu'on depaise et que l'on denature."]

Though our investigations do not give support to the fantastic accounts
of animal intelligence given by Brehms, they by no means warrant a
return to Descartes and his theory of the animal-machine (as is
advocated by a number of over-critical investigators). We cannot deny
the validity of conclusions from analogy without denying at the same
time the possibility of an animal psychology--indeed of all psychology.
And all such conclusions indicate that the lower forms possess the power
of sense-perception, that they, like us, presumably have at their
disposal certain images, and that their psychic life is to a large
extent also constituted of mere image-associations, and that they too,
learn by experience. Also that they are susceptible to feelings of
pleasure and of pain and also to emotions, as jealousy, fear, etc.,
though these may be only of the kind which have a direct relation to
their life-needs. We are in no position to deny _a priori_ the
possibility of traces of conceptual thought in those forms nearest man
in the scale--whether living in their natural manner or under artificial
conditions. And even less so since the final word has not yet been
spoken regarding the nature of conceptual thinking itself. All that is
certain is that nothing of the kind has been proven to occur in the
lower forms, and that as yet not even a suitable method of discovering
its existence has been suggested. But the community of those elementary
processes of mental life which we have mentioned above is in itself
enough to connect the life of the lower forms with ours, and imposes
upon us the duty of regarding them not as objects for exploitation and
mistreatment, but as worthy of rational care and affection.

SUPPLEMENTS

SUPPLEMENT I

MR. VON OSTEN'S METHOD OF INSTRUCTION

[BY C. STUMPF]

The following is a report of the account, which Mr. von Osten gave
Professor Schumann and me, of the method which he h