the expressions: "up", "down", etc.

First of all, Hans had to be taught to bring the cloths. Then began the
pointing out of the different colors, accompanied each time by their
proper names. It is very probable that at first Hans had to be led each
time to each separate colored cloth and taught to raise it or to touch
it with his nose. Later, Mr. von Osten, after having pronounced the name
of the color, remained at his place, with his head and body directed to
the cloth in question and gazing intently at it, in order to see whether
or not the horse was pointing out the right one. Naturally Hans would,
at first, fail a hundred times where he would succeed but once, but
since the horse would receive the anticipated reward in case of success,
he gradually became conscious that this reward was attached to
executions which had some special mark. This special mark would be
expressed in human speech by the statement that the horse would go in
the direction indicated by the position of the instructor's body. For
Hans, of course, this would not take the form of an abstract statement,
but simply of a definite way of seeing and of going and a correlation of
the two in a certain definite manner,--the whole being a process, the
elements of which remained unanalyzed and unaccounted for by Hans. Owing
to the position of the eye, it was possible for him to keep his master
within his field of vision, while he was approaching the cloths. And
only when he had correlated his approach in a certain definite manner
with his visual perception of the master, i. e., only when he had felt
his way, as it were, along the latter's line of vision, did he receive
his reward. A sufficient number of repetitions was all that was
necessary to establish an association in the psychological sense of the
term. In the same manner, dogs will learn, as was indicated on page 177,
to bring an object upon which the master has fixed his gaze, it
mattering little whether or not the name of the object be enunciated.
There is only this difference, that, in the case of the dog it is not
possible to keep the image of the master within the field of vision; but
neither is it necessary, for he has recognized the object before he has
started for it. We must remember, however, that it does not simplify an
attempt at explanation to assume that Mr. von Osten consciously trained
the animal to respond to certain bodily positions of the questioner.
For, even in this case, it woul