ated force to which spirits, nature,
and men are subject alike.

If a troublesome question arises, or an evident inconsistency in
his beliefs is called to his attention, he disposes of it by the
simple statement that it is _kadauyan_ ("custom"), "was taught by
the ancestors," and hence is not subject to question.

His religion holds forth no threat of punishment in a future world,
neither are there rewards in that existence to urge men to better
deeds. The chief teaching is that the customs of ancient times must be
faithfully followed; to change is to show disrespect for the dead, for
the spirits who are responsible for the customs, which are synonymous
with law.

Custom and religion have become so closely interwoven in this society
that it is well-nigh impossible to separate them. The building of a
house, the planting, harvesting and care of the rice, the procedure at
a birth, wedding, or funeral, in short, all the events of the social
and economic life, are so governed by custom and religious beliefs,
that it is safe to say that nearly every act in the life of the
Tinguian is directed or affected by these forces.

Two classes of spirits are recognized; first, those who have existed
through all time, whom we shall call natural spirits; second, the
spirits of deceased mortals. The latter reside forever in Maglawa,
a place midway between earth and sky; but a small number of them have
joined the company of the natural spirits. Except for these few, they
are not worshiped, and no offerings are made to them, after the period
of mourning is past. The members of the first class cover a wide range,
from Kadaklan, the great spirit who resides above, to Kaboniyan,
the teacher and helper, to those resident in the guardian stones,
to the half human, half bird-like _alan_, to the low, mean spirits
who delight to annoy mortals. These beings are usually invisible,
but at times of ceremonies they enter the bodies of the mediums,
possess them, and thus communicate with the people. On rare occasions
they are visible in their own forms, as when Kaboniyan appeared as
the antagonist and later as the friend of Sayen. [117]

These beings are addressed, first through certain semi-magical
formulas, know as _diams_. These are seldom prayers or supplications,
but are a part of a definite ritual, the whole of which is expected
to gain definite favors.

At the beginning, and during the course of all ceremonies, animals are
killed. A part o