uam sancto vera Catoni?'

Cf. ix. 186-9.

(4) Caesar; ii. 439,

'Caesar in arma furens nullas nisi sanguine fuso
gaudet habere vias';

v. 242,

'perdere successus scelerum';

vii. 593,

'nondum attigit arcem
iuris et humanum columen, quo cuncta premuntur,
egressus meruit fatis tam nobile letum.
Vivat et, ut Bruti procumbat victima, regnet.'

Caesar's acts are sometimes unfairly represented, as in vii. 798
_sqq._, ix. 1035 _sqq._ (on viewing Pompeius' corpse); ll. 1038-9,

'lacrimas non sponte cadentis
effudit gemitusque expressit pectore laeto.'

_Lucan's philosophical and religious views._--His Stoicism comes out
strongly in the poem, ix. 566-84 (speech of Cato), especially 578-80,

'Estque dei sedes, nisi terra et pontus et aer
et caelum et virtus? Superos quid quaerimus ultra?
Iuppiter est, quodcumque vides, quodcumque moveris?'

vii. 814,

'Communis mundo superest rogus ossibus astra
mixturus.'

Note especially the very frequent references to fate; i. 263-4,

'cunctasque pudoris
rumpunt fata moras.'

The gods are not introduced as chief agents; cf. the censure of
Petronius quoted below. Lucan prides himself on despising the gods,
and substitutes for them his favourite divinity, Fortuna; i. 128,

'Victrix causa deis placuit, sed victa Catoni';

vii. 445,

'Sunt nobis nulla profecto
numina; cum caeco rapiantur saecula casu,
mentimur regnare Iovem.'

_Rhetorical treatment_ is seen in (1) the vast amount of hyperbole
employed; cf. the account of the siege of Massilia, iii. 538-762; (2)
the geographical and mythological learning introduced. This is
sometimes inaccurate; the best known instance is his confusion of
Pharsalus and Philippi; cf. i. 1 and 688.

_Lucan's models._--(1) For diction, chiefly Virgil.[77] Horace and
Ovid are also imitated.

(2) For history Lucan is supposed to have used Livy mostly. How far he
used other authorities is unknown. His history is sometimes inexact.
In ii. 478 _sqq._ the character of L. Domitius Ahenobarbus is falsely
portrayed. So the journey of Cato to the shrine of Hammon, ix. 511
_sqq._

(3) Seneca is one of his authorities for science and philosophy. Thus
in describing the Nile, x. 194-331, Lucan has used Seneca, _Nat.
Quaest._ iv. 1-2. The biographer of the _Codex Vossianus_ ii.
attributes (probably wrongly) the first seven verses of Book i. to
Seneca.

'Seneca, qui