n, and the life of
thought, philosophy. These intellectual virtues are called by
Aristotle dianoetic. Secondly, the ethical virtues proper will consist
in the submission of the passions and appetites to the control of
reason. The dianoetic virtues are the higher, because in them man's
special function alone is in operation, and also because the thinking
man most resembles God, whose life is a life of pure thought.

Happiness, therefore, consists in the combination of dianoetic and
ethical virtues. They alone are of absolute value to man. Yet, though
he places happiness in virtue, Aristotle, in his broad and practical
way, does not overlook the fact that external goods and circumstances
have a profound influence upon happiness, and cannot be ignored, as
the Cynics attempted to ignore them. Not that Aristotle regards
externals as having any value in themselves. What alone is good in
itself, is an end in itself, is virtue. But external goods help a man
in his quest of virtue. Poverty, sickness, and misfortune, on the
other hand, hinder his efforts. Therefore, though externals are not
goods in themselves, they may be a means towards the good. Hence they
are not to be despised and rejected. Riches, friends, health, {317}
good fortune, are not happiness. But they are negative conditions of
it. With them happiness is within our grasp. Without them its
attainment is difficult. They will be valued accordingly.

Aristotle says little in detail of the dianoetic virtues. And we may
turn at once to the main subject of his moral system, the ethical
virtues. These consist in the governance of the passions by reason.
Socrates was wrong in supposing that virtue is purely intellectual,
that nothing save knowledge is needed for it, and that if a man thinks
right he must needs do right. He forgot the existence of the passions,
which are not easily controlled. A man may reason perfectly, his
reason may point him to the right path, but his passions may get the
upper hand and lead him out of it. How then is reason to gain control
over the appetites? Only by practice. It is only by continual effort,
by the constant exercise of self-control, that the unruly passions can
be tamed. Once brought under the yoke, their control becomes habit.
Aristotle lays the utmost emphasis on the importance of habit in
morality. It is only by cultivating good habits that a man becomes
good.

Now if virtue consists in the control of the appetites by reason, it