color or figure, and it was perceived by sight or
touch. This is all that I can understand by these and the like
expressions. For as to what is said of the _absolute_
existence of unthinking things, without any relation to their
being perceived, that is to me perfectly unintelligible. Their
_esse_ is _percipi_; nor is it possible that they should have
any existence out of the minds or thinking thing which
perceives them."[176:18]

[Sidenote: Phenomenalism, Spiritualism, and Panpsychism.]

Sect. 71. In this paragraph Berkeley maintains that it is essential to
things, or at any rate to their qualities, that they _be perceived_.
This principle when expressed as an epistemological or metaphysical
generalization, is called _phenomenalism_. But in another phase of his
thought Berkeley emphasizes the _perceiver_, or _spirit_. The theory
which maintains that the only real substances are these active selves,
with their powers and their states, has been called somewhat vaguely by
the name of _spiritualism_.[176:19] Philosophically it shows a strong
tendency to develop into either _panpsychism_ or _transcendentalism_.
The former is radically empirical. Its classic representative is the
German pessimist Schopenhauer, who defined reality in terms of will
because that term signified to him most eloquently _the directly felt
nature of the self_. This immediate revelation of the true inwardness of
being serves as the key to an "intuitive interpretation" of the
gradations of nature, and will finally awaken a sense of the presence of
the universal Will.

[Sidenote: Transcendentalism, or Absolute Idealism.]

Sect. 72. _Transcendentalism_, or _absolute idealism_, on the other
hand, emphasizes the _rational activity_, rather than the bare
subjectivity, _of the self_. The term "transcendental" has become
associated with this type of idealism through Kant, whose favorite form
of argument, the "transcendental deduction," was an analysis of
experience with a view to discovering the categories, or formal
principles of thought, implied in its meaning. From the Kantian method
arose the conception of a standard or _absolute mind_ for the standard
experience. This mind is transcendental not in the sense of being alien,
but in the sense of exceeding the human mind in the direction of what
this means and strives to be. It is the ideal or normal mind, in which
the true reality is contained, with all the chaos of