for it seduced men from scientific pursuit
of truth to the service of dogma. "You may find all access to any
species of philosophy," said Bacon, "however pure, intercepted by the
ignorance of divines."

The thought here expressed but sums up the actual trend of the
sixteenth century in the direction of separating philosophy and
religion. In modern times the philosopher has found his inspiration
far more in science than in religion, and the turning-point came about
the time of, and largely as a consequence of, the new observation of
nature, and particularly the new astronomy.

[Sidenote: Revolt against Aristotle]

The prologue to the drama of the new thought was revolt against
Aristotle. "The master of them who know" had become, after the
definite acceptance of his works as standard texts in the universities
of the thirteenth century, an inspired and infallible authority {637}
for all science. With him were associated the schoolmen who debated
the question of realism versus nominalism. But as the mind of man grew
and advanced, what had been once the brace became a galling bond. All
parties united to make common cause against the Stagyrite. The Italian
Platonists attacked him in the name of their, and his, master. Luther
opined that no one had ever understood Aristotle's meaning, that the
ethics of that "damned heathen" directly contradicted Christian virtue,
that any potter would know more of natural science than he, and that it
would be well if he who had started the debate on realism and
nominalism had never been born. Catholics like Usingen protested at
the excessive reverence given to Aristotle at the expense of Christ.
Finally, the French scientist Peter Ramus [Sidenote: Ramus, c. 1515-72]
advanced the thesis at the University of Paris that everything taught
by Aristotle was false. No authority, he argued, is superior to
reason, for it is reason which creates and determines authority.

[Sidenote: Effect of science on philosophy]

In place of Aristotle men turned to nature. "Whosoever in discussion
adduces authority uses not intellect but memory," said Leonardo. Vives
urged that experiment was the only road to truth. The discoveries of
natural laws led to a new conception of external reality, independent
of man's wishes and egocentric theories. It also gave rise to the
conception of uniformity of law. Copernicus sought and found a
mathematical unity in the heavens. It was, above all else, his
as