. Gaming, fighting,
drinking and wenching were common.

[Sidenote: Mode of government]

Nominally, the university was then under the entire control of the
faculty, who elected one of themselves "rector" (president) for a
single year, who appointed their own members and who had complete
charge of studies and discipline, save that the students occasionally
asserted their ancient rights. In fact, the corporation was pretty
well under the thumb of the government, which compelled elections and
dismissals when it saw fit, and occasionally appointed commissions to
visit and reform the faculties.

[Sidenote: of instruction]

Instruction was still carried on by the old method of lectures and
debates. These latter were sometimes on important questions of the
day, theological or political, but were often, also, nothing but
displays of ingenuity. There was a great lack of laboratories, a need
that just began to be felt at the end of the century when Bacon wrote:
"Unto the deep, fruitful and operative study of many sciences,
specially natural philosophy and physics, books be not only the
instrumentals." Bacon's further complaint that, "among so many great
foundations of colleges in Europe, I find it strange that they are all
dedicated to professions, and none left free to arts and sciences at
large," is an early hint of the need of the endowment of research. The
degrees in liberal arts, B.A. and M.A., were then more strictly than
now licences either to teach or to pursue higher professional studies
in divinity, law, or medicine. Fees for graduation {670} were heavy;
in France a B.A. cost $24, an M.D. $690 and a D.D. $780.

[Sidenote: New universities]

Germany then held the primacy that she has ever since had in Europe
both in the number of her universities and in the aggregate of her
students. The new universities founded by the Protestants were:
Marburg 1527, Koenigsberg 1544, Jena 1548 and again 1558, Helmstadt
1575, Altdorf 1578, Paderborn 1584. In addition to these the Catholics
founded four or five new universities, though not important ones. They
concentrated their efforts on the endeavor to found new "colleges" at
the old institutions.

[Sidenote: Numbers]

In general the universities lost during the first years of the
Reformation, but more than made up their numbers by the middle of the
century. Wittenberg had 245 matriculations in 1521; in 1526 the
matriculations had fallen to 175, but by 1550, notwit