of
1877 and 1878. Abortive though these were and followed by Hamidian
absolutism, they were legal precedents, never forgotten. From all this
Professor Lybyer concludes: "The Turkish Parliament may therefore be
regarded, not as a complete innovation, but as an enlargement and
improvement of familiar institutions."[131]

Regarding Persia, the American W. Morgan Shuster, whom the Persian
Revolutionary Government called in to organize the country's finances,
and who was ousted in less than a year by Russo-British pressure,
expresses an optimistic regard for the political capacities of the
Persian people.

"I believe," he says, "that there has never been in the history of the
world an instance where a people changed suddenly from an absolute
monarchy to a constitutional or representative form of government and at
once succeeded in displaying a high standard of political wisdom and
knowledge of legislative procedure. Such a thing is inconceivable and
not to be expected by any reasonable person. The members of the first
Medjlis[132] were compelled to fight for their very existence from the
day that the Parliament was constituted.... They had no time for serious
legislative work, and but little hope that any measures which they might
enact would be put into effect.

"The second and last Medjlis, practically all of whose members I knew
personally, was doubtless incompetent if it were to be judged by the
standards of the British Parliament or the American Congress. It would
be strange indeed if an absolutely new and untried government in a land
filled with the decay of ages should, from the outset, be able to
conduct its business as well as governments with generations and even
centuries of experience behind them. We should make allowances for lack
of technical knowledge; for the important question, of course, is that
the Medjlis in the main represented the new and just ideals and
aspirations of the Persian people. Its members were men of more than
average education; some displayed remarkable talent, character, and
courage.... They responded enthusiastically to any patriotic suggestion
which was put before them. They themselves lacked any great knowledge of
governmental finances, but they realized the situation and were both
willing and anxious to put their full confidence in any foreign advisers
who showed themselves capable of resisting political intrigues and
bribery and working for the welfare of the Persian people.

"N